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does not exist in an ultimate sense. The Buddhist philosophical term for an individual is Santana, i.e., a flux or a
continuity. It includes the mental and physical elements as well. The Kammic force of each individual binds the
elements together. This uninterrupted flux or continuity of psycho-physical phenomenon, which is conditioned by
Kamma, and not limited only to the present life, but having its source in the beginningless past and its continuation
in the future -- is the Buddhist substitute for the permanent ego or the immortal soul of other religions.
Chapter X
Nibbana
This process of birth and death continues ad infinitum until this flux is transmuted, so to say, to Nibbanadhatu, the
ultimate goal of Buddhists.
The Pali word Nibbana is formed of Ni and Vana. Ni is a negative particle and Vana means lusting or craving. "It is
called Nibbana, in that it is a departure from the craving which is called Vana, lusting." Literally, Nibbana means
non-attachment.
It may also be defined as the extinction of lust, hatred and ignorance, "The whole world is in flames," says the
Buddha. "By what fire is it kindled? By the fire of lust, hatred and ignorance, by the fire of birth, old age, death,
pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief and despair it is kindled."
It should not be understood that Nibbana is a state of nothingness or annihilation owing to the fact that we cannot
perceive it with our worldly knowledge. One cannot say that there exists no light just because the blind man does not
see it. In that well known story, too, the fish arguing with his friend, the turtle, triumphantly concluded that there
exists no land.
Nibbana of the Buddhists is neither a mere nothingness nor a state of annihilation, but what it is no words can
adequately express. Nibbana is a Dhamma which is "unborn, unoriginated, uncreated and unformed." Hence, it is
eternal (Dhuva), desirable (Subha), and happy (Sukha).
In Nibbana nothing is "eternalized," nor is anything "annihilated," besides suffering.
According to the Books references are made to Nibbana as Sopadisesa and Anupadisesa. These, in fact, are not two
kinds of Nibbana, but the one single Nibbana, receiving its name according to the way it is experienced before and
after death.
Nibbana is not situated in any place nor is it a sort of heaven where a transcendental ego resides. It is a state which is
dependent upon this body itself. It is an attainment (Dhamma) which is within the reach of all. Nibbana is a
supramundane state attainable even in this present life. Buddhism does not state that this ultimate goal could be
reached only in a life beyond. Here lies the chief difference between the Buddhist conception of Nibbana and the
non-Buddhist conception of an eternal heaven attainable only after death or a union with a God or Divine Essence in
an after-life. When Nibbana is realized in this life with the body remaining, it is called Sopadisesa Nibbana-dhatu.
When an Arahat attains Parinibbana, after the dissolution of his body, without any remainder of physical existence it
is called Anupadisesa Nibbana-dhatu.
In the words of Sir Edwin Arnold:
"If any teach Nirvana is to cease
Say unto such they lie.
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If any teach Nirvana is to love
Say unto such they err."
From a metaphysical standpoint Nibbana is deliverance from suffering. From a psychological standpoint Nibbana is
the eradication of egoism. From an ethical standpoint Nibbana is the destruction of lust, hatred and ignorance.
Does the Arahat exist or not after death?
The Buddha replies:
"The Arahat who has been released from the five aggregates is deep, immeasurable like
the mighty ocean. To say that he is reborn would not fit the case. To say that he is neither
reborn nor not reborn would not fit the case."
One cannot say that an Arahat is reborn as all passions that condition rebirth are eradicated; nor can one say that the
Arahat is annihilated for there is nothing to annihilate.
Robert Oppenheimer, a scientist, writes:
"If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron remains the same, we must
say 'no'; if we ask whether the electron's position changes with time, we must say 'no'; if
we ask whether the electron is at rest, we must say 'no'; if we ask whether it is in motion,
we must say 'no'.
"The Buddha has given such answers when interrogated as to the conditions of man's self
after death;[14] but they are not familiar answers from the tradition of the 17th and 18th
century science."
Chapter XI
The Path to Nibbana
How is Nibbana to be attained?
It is by following the Noble Eight-fold Path which consists of Right Understanding (Samma-ditthi), Right Thoughts
(samma-sankappa), Right Speech (samma-vaca), Right Actions (samma-kammanta), Right Livelihood (samma-
ajiva), Right Effort (samma-vayama), Right Mindfulness (samma-sati), and Right Concentration (samma-samadhi).
1. Right Understanding, which is the key-note of Buddhism, is explained as the knowledge of the four Noble Truths.
To understand rightly means to understand things as they really are and not as they appear to be. This refers
primarily to a correct understanding of oneself, because, as the Rohitassa Sutta states, "Dependent on this one-
fathom long body with its consciousness" are all the four Truths. In the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path, Right
Understanding stands at the beginning as well as at its end. A minimum degree of Right Understanding is necessary
at the very beginning because it gives the right motivations to the other seven factors of the Path and gives to them
correct direction. At the culmination of the practice, Right Understanding has matured into perfect Insight Wisdom
(vipassana-pañña), leading directly to the Stages of Sainthood.
2. Clear vision of right understanding leads to clear thinking. The second factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path is
therefore, Right Thoughts (samma-sankappa), which serves the double purpose of eliminating evil thoughts and
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